The Crucial Role of Healthy Soils in Scotland's Economy: Costs and Mitigation Strategies
The Crucial Role of Healthy Soils in Scotland's Economy: Costs and Mitigation Strategies
Healthy soils are the backbone of many sectors within the Scottish economy, playing a vital role in improving crop yields, storing water to mitigate drought and flooding, and regulating water flow to rivers and lochs. However, when these soils are degraded, the impacts, both direct and indirect, can lead to significant costs for individuals, society, and the broader economy.
Like soils worldwide, Scottish soils are susceptible to degradation. Current measurements indicate a significant portion of Scotland’s soils are already in a degraded state. Degradation due to soil sealing and compaction is linked to land use and soil type, with some soils being more vulnerable than others. The extent of degradation due to soil contamination remains unknown due to a lack of data. Although there are known sites with contaminated soils, the associated costs are yet to be determined.
Estimating the costs of soil degradation requires an understanding of the extent of degradation, its impacts, and the associated costs. This CREW project (Assessing the socio-economic impacts of soil degradation on Scotland’s water environment | CREW | Scotland's Centre of Expertise for Waters) found that the annual estimated costs of soil degradation in Scotland from soil sealing and compaction range from £25 million and £75 million due to reduced crop yield and increase fuel use. Furthermore, the study found that soil compaction can exacerbate erosion, increasing previous estimates of erosion costs. Soil degradation also creates increased costs due to greenhouse gas emissions. While the costs of contamination and loss of biodiversity are more difficult to estimate and further work is needed to calculate this additional cost, they also contribute to the overall economic burden.
Addressing soil degradation through informed strategies and robust monitoring is essential to mitigate its significant economic and environmental costs. Scotland’s policies to protect soils are not only environmentally prudent but economically beneficial, ensuring the sustainable use of this vital natural resource.
The Impacts of Soil Compaction and Sealing
Compacted soils have a reduced capacity to absorb water, reducing plant water availability and crop yields and increases water runoff to rivers. This runoff carries more pollutants to rivers and lochs and heightens the risk of flooding. Compacted soils also require more fuel for cultivation, increasing costs for farmers, greenhouse gas emissions, and reducing biodiversity. Soil sealing leads to more impermeable surfaces, escalating water flow into rivers and drainage systems, potentially causing significant flooding issues. Mapping efforts have revealed that the development of land for housing and transport networks continues to add impermeable surfaces (sealed soils) across Scotland.
The Role of Climate Change
All impacts of soil degradation are likely to be exacerbated by climate change. Spring droughts can lead to further yield reductions, while intense rainfall increases the risks of compaction, flooding, and pollutant runoff.
Mitigation Strategies
To minimize soil degradation, several strategies can be implemented. Timing agricultural operations to avoid farm traffic operations on wet soils, using controlled traffic approaches and lighter machinery helps reduce soil compaction. Applying targeted subsoiling with organic matter incorporation only when necessary is also an effective measure. Incorporating deep-rooting plants into crop rotations, reducing development on greenfield sites, and assessing the impacts of chemicals on soils, crops, and waters are further crucial steps. Additionally, coordinating soil health monitoring and interventions ensures that these strategies are effectively implemented and adjusted as needed.
CREW would like to thank the research team (James Hutton Institute, University of Aberdeen, and SRUC) and the Project Steering Group (SEPA, NatureScot, and Scottish Government) for their dedication and support to the project and in addressing this important issue.
Read more about the findings from this CREW report here
Protecting Scotland's Lochs: Addressing the Threat of Algal Blooms
Scotland's lochs have long been cherished for their natural beauty, providing habitats for diverse wildlife and acting as beneficial recreational spaces for locals and tourists alike. However, these iconic water bodies face serious challenges such as climate change and nutrient run-off that threaten their ecological integrity and public health.
Global temperatures are now approximately 1.5ᵒC higher than pre-industrial levels. Rising air and water temperatures, alongside shifting rainfall patterns, are changing our planet’s ecosystem. As such, they pose a threat to the quality of Scottish lochs. Lochs are experiencing an increase in algal blooms due to warmer waters and runoff rich in phosphorus being flushed from the land due to heavy rainfall.
Algal blooms are rapid accumulations of cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, that pose serious risks for the health of both humans and wildlife. Blooms can threaten water security as well as cause habitat degradation, biodiversity loss, and a decline in water quality, jeopardising recreational activities leading to a reduction in amenity value. There are three key elements that, combined, allow the formation of algal blooms: warm temperatures, strong sunlight, and nutrients (especially phosphorus). Reducing any one of these key elements reduces the risk of algal bloom formation.
Phosphorus, a primary constituent of agricultural fertilisers, poses a significant threat as excess amounts seep from the land into lochs during wet weather. Climate change will make this situation more difficult. With climate change, the UK will likely become warmer and wetter in winter and hotter and drier in summer, experiencing more storms and droughts. These projected changes in weather will increase phosphorus concentrations in lochs, thereby increasing the risk of algal blooms developing.
Reducing phosphorus runoff is important and various measures including the installation of buffer strips to intercept runoff and the adoption of sustainable land management practices to minimise fertiliser applications hold promise. Other options, such as, removing nutrient laden sediment and employing chemical treatments to sink algal blooms need careful consideration as these measures are expensive, often need repeating and can be dangerous. Sediment can contain heavy metals and the disruption of algal cells can cause them to rupture, potentially releasing hazardous cyanotoxins into the water.
Phosphorus movement from land to water could more than double by 2080 if agricultural production is intensified causing an 87% increase in average phosphorus concentrations annually. The failure to curb nutrient inputs could be detrimental for Scotland’s lochs, leading them to miss regulatory targets set for high water quality. This is also economically important as the toll of algal blooms is an estimated £16.5 million per year, with far reaching impacts on water treatment costs, property value, tourism and biodiversity. This doesn’t include medical and veterinary costs that could occur as a result of harmful contact with cyanotoxins. Conversely, if sustainable land use practices are adopted more widely and low greenhouse gas emissions are achieved then a 20% reduction in phosphorus runoff may be achieved by 2080, which could improve water quality in around 85% of Scotland’s waters.
Climate change cannot be stopped, but we can adopt proactive measures to protect our lochs from adverse effects. Collaboration among stakeholders, including farmers, landowners, regulators, and policymakers, is crucial to co-create sustainable solutions that safeguard the resilience of our freshwaters. The time for action is now. Combining a low-emissions pathway with targeted measures to reduce phosphorus run-off is a promising strategy to prevent costly algal blooms and preserve the quality of Scottish lochs.
Read more about the findings from this CREW report here
CREW Science Policy Fellowships Boost Evidence-Based Decision Making for Flood Resilience in Scotland
CREW has initiated Science Policy Fellowships aimed at bridging the gap between scientific research and policy implementation. These fellowships enable Scotland's research community to advocate for critical, evidence-based science that addresses water-related policy, regulatory, and industry needs.
The fellowships are part of CREW's broader strategy, which balances a 'research-push' workstream with a 'policy-pull' approach to facilitate expert knowledge exchange. This initiative enhances collaboration between Scottish Higher Education Institutes (HEIs), Research Institutes, policymakers, regulators, and industry representatives.
In the present CREW Programme (2022-2027), three Science Policy Fellowships have been commissioned and completed. These align with and support the development of Scotland’s inaugural Flood Resilience Strategy, focusing on building public health resilience, community engagement, and a comprehensive understanding of flood risks and management. A workshop with over 40 stakeholders from policy, academia, and industry further enriched the Science Policy Fellowships, highlighting practical insights and future directions.
Building Public Health Resilience to Fluvial Flooding in Scotland
As climate change exacerbates the risk of fluvial flooding in Scotland, its adverse effects on public health, especially mental health, are becoming increasingly evident. The first CREW Science Policy Fellowship approached the issue by reviewing literature on the health impacts of fluvial flooding, whilst also identifying factors that influence health resilience.
The fellowship highlighted the need for targeted research to identify vulnerable groups and integrate this knowledge into localized flood emergency management strategies. The recommendations underscore the importance of making public health resilience to flooding a priority in Scotland's emergency management plans.
Policy to Preparedness: Flood Policy and Community Engagement
The second fellowship investigated the interconnectivity of flood-related policies at regional, Scottish, and UK levels. The findings revealed that while these policies promote climate and social justice, their implementation often encounters challenges due to existing societal inequalities. The research emphasized the need for a nuanced understanding of the diverse circumstances and vulnerabilities across Scotland to foster sustainable community flood resilience. This includes acknowledging and addressing the disparities in physical flood risk distribution and the socio-economic challenges faced by low-income communities with limited resources.
Resilience to Fluvial Flooding: Knowns and Unknowns to Recommendations for Management
The third fellowship took a deep dive into the knowledge base for flood risk, resilience, and management. By categorizing knowledge into 'known knowns,' 'known unknowns,' and 'unknown unknowns,' the research team provided a structured critique of current scientific and stakeholder understanding. Utilizing AI to synthesize vast amounts of information, the team identified four key themes: climate change, flood-generating hydrology, natural flood management, and stakeholder engagement.
A Collaborative Path Forward
The CREW Science Policy Fellowships underscore the critical role of collaborative, evidence-based approaches in addressing Scotland's flood resilience challenges. By fostering partnerships between researchers and policymakers, these fellowships aim to translate scientific insights into practical strategies that enhance public health resilience, promote equitable policies, and improve flood management practices across Scotland.
As Scotland moves forward with its first Flood Resilience Strategy, the insights from these fellowships will be instrumental in shaping a resilient, inclusive, and well-prepared society in the face of increasing climate-related challenges.
Access the full project outputs here.
Scotland Faces Growing Water Scarcity: Research Highlights a Range of Adaptive Strategies
Water scarcity occurs when access to sufficient water, both in quantity and quality, becomes limited. This can happen due to increased demand or reduced supply, such as during more frequent and severe droughts. Scotland’s climate is changing at an unprecedented rate, exposing the country to climate-related risks that were previously deemed insignificant.
As we better understand the increasing severity and frequency of dry periods and our potential future demands on our water supply, an adaption gap has become evident. This gap risks the security of what has been seen as a dependable, high-quality water supply. The impacts of water scarcity are already evident, with some local authorities, such as Aberdeenshire, having to deliver bottled water to homes with dry private supplies and farmers facing restrictions on irrigation.
This project, led by experts at the University of Dundee, sought to address current knowledge on water scarcity in Scotland, current strategies to mitigate water scarcity, future readiness in the face of climate uncertainty, which adaptive strategies are required to mitigate water scarcity and how these strategies can be integrated within Scotland’s existing policy framework. The research revealed several concerning trends and future projections. Scotland’s natural water supply is becoming more variable. Both meteorological and hydrological droughts have increased in frequency. Climate change projections suggest that drought conditions in Scotland will become more severe, more frequent and more prolonged over the next few decades. Future water demand is likely to increase, especially in areas and times of the year when water supply is projected to decrease. Responses to extreme weather events may exacerbate this issue if not managed properly.
There is a consensus among water sector participants in this project that water scarcity in Scotland is generally underestimated and that water resources are undervalued. There’s a common misconception that water resources are abundant in Scotland due to the perception that it’s ‘always raining’.
Currently, various strategies are in place to mitigate water scarcity, but their future effectiveness under changing climate conditions remains uncertain. The project highlights the need for comprehensive and flexible strategies to ensure water security. It proposed various strategies such as enhanced monitoring of water resources, implementation of water-saving technologies, educating the public on responsible water usage and ensuring new policies align and integrate with those that already exist.
Addressing water scarcity in Scotland requires a concerted effort from all sectors of society. By integrating robust monitoring, adaptive management practices, and public awareness, Scotland can better prepare for the water challenges posed by climate change. This research underscores the need to act now to protect Scotland's precious water resources, ensuring they remain available for future generations. With the right strategies and a commitment to sustainable water management, Scotland can navigate these challenges and safeguard its natural heritage.
Emerging Contaminants: Informing Scotland’s strategic monitoring and policy approaches on substances of increasing concern
The aim of this project was to inform, prioritise, and coordinate actionable monitoring and policy-based approaches to identify, assess, and mitigate risks from substances of increasing concern to Scotland’s water environment. Contaminants of increasing concern (CICs) comprise a diverse range of substances and organisms, including chemical groups such as pharmaceuticals and pesticides; biological contaminants such as pathogens and antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) genes; nanomaterials; and microplastics. CICs include compounds and organisms that are ‘new’ or increasing in presence in the environment or compounds or organisms already known to be present for which new information becomes available, e.g. on pathways or toxicities. Substances and groups considered CICs therefore evolve over time, due to new insights or new patterns of use.
Using a Substance Mapping approach, including literature review, an expert survey and a knowledge sharing workshop, the team found that based on evidence encountered, no CIC groups can be discounted for Scotland and significant data gaps exist on sources, pathways, exposure routes, hazard and risk. Many national and international databases are however available and could be consolidated for Scotland. The research team further recommended partnership working, an international review of policy options, and expansion of research capacity to further refine and fill the knowledge gaps.
Appendix IV – Emerging Contaminants MASTER Database - available seperately on request.
Assessing the socio-economic impacts of soil degradation on Scotland’s water environment
Scotland’s various policies to protect its soils from degradation create economic benefits. In this project the economic costs of soil degradation in Scotland were estimated. Using the best available data the impacts of soil compaction, sealing and contamination were assessed. The extent of these degradation processes was then used to calculate the costs across Scotland. Compacted soils can cost farmers £15 to £209 per ha in extra fuel use. The annual combined impact on crop yields and fuel use across Scotland is likely to cost between £25 million and £75 million. The compaction of soils and sealing by infrastructure could lead to a 1% increase in flooding, with insurance claims of between £57,000 and £76,000 per property flood event. Soil compaction can exacerbate erosion and increase previous estimates of erosion costs. Soil degradation also arises from contamination and the loss of biodiversity, but these are difficult to estimate. Given large costs of soil degradation annually, policies to protect this natural resource will benefit Scotland’s economy. The project team only costed direct impacts, using the available data that was often limited. The indirect costs on pollution, human health, supply chains and greenhouse gas emissions will be much greater, and additional monitoring is required to assess these effectively.
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Project Outputs
Navigating the Depths: Monitoring Scottish Freshwater Fish Populations
Scotland’s freshwater lochs are complex ecosystems teeming with life. They are home to an array of fish species, which are crucial to the ecological health of these habitats. Effectively monitoring these fish populations in such vast water bodies poses a challenge that requires innovative solutions and effective collaboration. As pressures from human activities such as large-scale hydro-electric developments mount, the monitoring, understanding and safeguarding of Scotland’s freshwater fish is increasingly important.
Recognising the importance of effectively monitoring fish in Scottish lochs, a recent CREW project aimed to evaluate current sampling methodologies and produce guidelines to support the implementation of suitable assessment programmes. Building from information gathered by literature review, an expert-led workshop was held to ensure that developed guidelines were practical for real-world application. Organisations represented at the workshop included Natural England, NatureScot, Scottish Environmental Protection Agency, Scottish Fisheries Coordination Centre, the Atlantic Salmon Trust, Scottish Government Marine Directorate, Hull International Fisheries Institute, Trex Ecology Ltd., two fishery boards (Ness District and Cromarty Firth), and several universities (University of Glasgow, UHI Inverness and University of Stirling). Throughout the project there was a keen focus on understanding species abundance across space and time, and fulfilling regulatory requirements as several Scottish freshwater fish species such as the Atlantic salmon and European eel have legislative protection.
The findings revealed a diverse range of sampling methodologies, ranging from traditional (i.e. gill netting) to more modern (i.e. environmental DNA) techniques. Overall, four primary sampling methods, complemented by six supporting techniques, emerged as key tools in the fish monitoring toolkit. Stakeholders emphasised the need for high quality data and reproducibility, prioritising these factors over ease of application, cost and processing time. As such, there is no ‘one size fits all’ approach to freshwater fish monitoring in Scottish lochs. Careful consideration to determine the most suitable combination of methods for each unique water body and monitoring scenario is crucial. A monitoring framework, outlined in the project report, can ensure that appropriate sampling methods are selected and that surveys are designed effectively to meet data requirements.
From general ecological considerations to site-specific nuances and long-term outlooks the project successfully offered valuable insights into the complexities of freshwater fish monitoring. By adopting a unified approach guided by science and stakeholder collaboration, Scotland can significantly move towards sustainable fish population management and conservation. This is critical for effective environmental stewardship and ensuring a thriving ecosystem for generations to come.
Thank you to the Research Team at UHI Inverness and to all stakeholders who contributed to the project.
Click here to see the full project outputs.
1Environmental stewardship refers to the responsible use and protection of the natural environment. It involves active participation in conservation efforts and sustainable practices to ensure the well-being of the environment for current and future generations. This concept emphasises the need to balance human needs with environmental preservation.
5th International Workshop on High Temporal Resolution Water Quality Monitoring and Analysis
5th International Workshop on High Temporal Resolution Water Quality Monitoring and Analysis
The James Hutton Institute, Aberdeen, Scotland 17th-19th of June 2024
This meeting follows a series of scientific workshops previously held in Uppsala (2021), Clonakilty (2018), Sandjberg (2016), and Magdeburg (2014). The 5th in the series will explore recent technological and scientific advances in water quality measurements allowing for high-resolution determination of chemicals in water with a range of instruments deployed in situ (optical sensors, passive samplers, wet-chemistry analysers, lab-ona-chip) and remote sensing. These new technologies have brought new insights into mechanistic understanding of catchment and stream processes and are progressively utilised to evaluate the effectiveness of water management efforts.
Confirmed Programme: One-day field trip to the Easter Beltie Restoration Site & Glensaugh UK Environmental Change Network monitoring site Conference dinner at the Palm Court Hotel (18th of June) Key note talks from Professor Phil Jordan (University of Ulster) & Professor Richard McDowell (Lincoln University)
Your Planet Your Future
Your Planet Your Future
Sowing Seeds for the Next generation Careers for People and the Environment
Posted on behalf of Rachel Helliwell and Lorna Dawson
Over 600 school children aged 11 to 18 years old from 9 council areas in Scotland attended the ‘Your Plant-Your Future’ event at Our Dynamic Earth, Edinburgh on 5th March 2024. The aim of the event was to engage young people, raise awareness of the many environmental issues facing Scotland today, and inspire them to consider a future in a STEM related career- in an attempt to address the skills gap that currently exists. Pupils explored the amazing opportunities that can be unlocked through STEM pathways at school and beyond.
The event bought together >20 partners across research, industry, further and higher education who showcased exhibits to inspire the next generation of scientists through enthusiastic discussion and interactive displays.
The James Hutton Institute was represented by HNIC/CREW/SEFARI Gateway under the SAGES umbrella and highlighted the importance of water as a limited resource through a exhibits and a quiz. Posters were displayed, on the hydrological cycle and how different sectors such as agriculture, industry and society impact on water quantity and quality. There was a particular emphasis on the changing demand on water as a consequence of climate change.
We used the opportunity to gather information on pupils’ perception of the availability of fresh water and its use from a domestic to global scale to stimulate discussion about how best to use our limited water resource.
The day was a great success with over 100 pupils engaging with the stall, some were attracted by the quiz prizes(!) but a surprisingly large number of pupils were genuinely interested and keen to engage.
Whilst pupils had a good understanding of how much of the earth’s surface is covered in water (70%), they were shocked to learn that only 5% of water is fresh (average response was 26%). The pupils were also surprised that on average, each individual in Scotland uses around 180 litres of water per day, compared to an average of 144 litres per day for England and Wales. When asked what percentage of their daily water consumption comes from the use of the bathroom or toilet, the average response (61%) was close to the value presented in a recent study (63%). Most pupils grossly underestimated how much water is used during a 5-minute shower (the reality being 45 litres!). Following the quiz, many pupils were genuinely eager to learn how to change their behaviour and be more responsible water citizens.
Given that universities and colleges are struggling to attract students to environmental subjects such as geography and environmental science, we hope to have inspired at least a few to consider career possibilities in STEM disciplines.
After completing the questionnaire one S5 student said. “Aw this is interesting; if everyone does their bit, we could save a lot of water. A career in this area could be a game changer and really make a difference.”
Resilience to Fluvial Flooding: Knowns and Unknowns to Recommendations for Management
In this Science Policy Fellowship, the research team aimed to critique what we know and don’t know about fluvial flood risk, resilience and management. The research team used the epistemological construct of “known knowns, known unknowns and unknown unknowns” to assess both scientific and stakeholder knowledge. The team conducted a Rapid Evidence Assessment utilising the power of AI to synthesise thousands of papers and to produce network visualisations of keywords and conducted a workshop with key stakeholders. Four themes emerged; 1) Climate Change; 2) Flood Generating Hydrology; 3) Natural Flood Management; and 4) Stakeholder Engagement.
The research team's specific recommendations include:
- Mainstream and upscale NFM implementation, supported by monitoring and maintenance. Ensure NFM is assessed holistically for use alongside hard engineered solutions.
- Contextualize flood management decisions to take into account hydrological complexity, non-linearity, and the unique geography of each catchment.
- Shift to adaptive planning, to account for future uncertainty associated with climate change, including in terms of mindset, economic appraisal, and funding mechanisms.
- Encourage community co-creation of flood management for place-based, socially accepted policies, relating to standard of protection, risk perception, and balance of options.
- Address the many gaps in our knowledge, highlighted by scientific confidence assessments and Unknown Unknowns, which need future research.
CREW Science Policy Fellowships
This project is part of CREW's Science Policy Fellowship workstream which intends to support evidence-based decisions by providing the opportunity for Scotland’s research community to advocate for critical science that addresses upcoming water-related policy, regulatory and/or industry needs. You can read more about CREW Science Policy Fellowships here.
CREW commissioned three Science Policy Fellowships which are aligned to, and support, the development of Scotland’s first Flood Resilience Strategy. Read more about the two other projects here:
Building Public Health Resilience to Fluvial Flooding in Scotland
Policy to Preparedness: Flood Policy and Community Engagement
You can read more about other engagement activity, led by Sniffer working closely with Scottish Flood Forum and ClimatexChange, to support the development of Scotland's first Flood Resileince Strategy here.
Project Outputs (please scroll down for written outputs)
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